Clouds Are Divided Into Four Families According to Their
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MORPHOLOGICAL AND LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL Grouping
On the morphological level words are divided into four groups according to their morphological construction (see � 5.ane), namely the number and type of morphemes which etch them. They are:
1. Root or morpheme words. Their stem contains one gratuitous morpheme, due east. g. dog, hand.
ii. Derivatives contain no less than two morphemes of which at to the lowest degree 1 is bound, e.m. dogged, adamantly, handy, handful; sometimes both are bound: terrier.
3. Compound words consist of non less than two free morphemes, the presence of jump morphemes is possible but non necessary, east. chiliad. dog-inexpensive �very cheap�; dog-days �hottest role of the year�; handball, handbook.
four. Compound derivatives consist of not less than two free morphemes and one bound morpheme referring to the whole combination. The pattern is (stem+stalk) +suffix,eastward. g. dog-legged �crooked or bent like a domestic dog�s hind leg�, left-handed.
This division is the bones one for lexicology.
Another type of traditional lexicological grouping is known as word-families. The number of groups is certainly much greater, being equal to the number of root morphemes if all the words are grouped according to the root morpheme. For example: dog, doggish, doglike, doggy/doggie, to dog, dogged, doggedly, doggedness, domestic dog-wolf, canis familiaris-days, domestic dog-biscuit, dog-cart, etc.; hand, handy, handicraft, handbag, handball, handful, handmade, handsome, etc.
Similar groupings according to a mutual suffix or prefix are also possible, if not as often made use of. The greater the combining power of the affix, the more numerous the group. Groups with such suffixes as -er, -ing, -ish, -less, -ness institute space (open) sets, i.e. are almost unlimited, because new combinations are constantly created. When the suffix is no longer productive the group may accept a diminishing number of elements, as with the adjective-forming suffix -some, e. g. gladsome, gruesome, handsome, lithesome, lonesome, tiresome, troublesome, wearisome, wholesome, winsome, etc.
The next step is classifying words non in isolation but taking them within actual utterances. Here the first contrast to consider is the contrast between notional words and form or functional words. Actually the definition of the word as a minimum free form holds good for notional words but. It is just notional words that tin can stand lonely and yet have meaning and form a complete utterance. They can proper noun dissimilar objects of reality, the qualities of these objects and actions or the procedure in which they take part. In sentences they function syntactically equally some primary or secondary members. Even extended sentences are possible which consist of notional words simply. They tin besides limited the attitude of the speaker towards reality.
Form words, also called functional words, empty words or auxiliaries (the latter term is coined by H. Sweet), are lexical units which are chosen words, although they practise non conform to the definition of the discussion, because they are used simply in combination with notional words or in reference to them. This group comprises auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and relative adverbs. Primarily they limited grammatical relationships betwixt words. This does not, however, imply that they have no lexical meaning of their own.
The borderline betwixt notional and functional words is not always very clear and does non correspond to that between various parts of speech. Thus, most verbs are notional words, but the auxiliary verbs are classified as form words. It is open to discussion whether link verbs should be treated as form words or not. The situation is very complicated if we consider pronouns. Personal, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns, every bit their syntactical functions testify, are notional words;
reflexive pronouns seem to be grade words building up such analytical verb forms as I warmed myself, only this is open to give-and-take. As to prop-words (one, those, etc.), some authors think that they should be considered as a carve up, third group.
B.N. Aksenenko very aptly proved the presence of a lexical meaning past suggesting a substitution test with They went to the village equally a test frame. Past substituting across, from, into, circular, out of and through for to, ane readily sees the semantic divergence between them.
It is typical of the English linguistic communication that the purlieus between notional and functional words sometimes lies within the semantic construction of ane and the same word, and then that in some contexts they appear as notional words and in other contexts as form words. Compare the functions and meanings of the verb have as used in the following extract from a novel by A. Huxley: Those that have non mutter almost their own fate. Those that take practise not, information technology is only those in contact with them �� and since the havers are few these too are few � who complain of the expletive of having. In my time I have belonged to both categories. One time I had, and I tin see that to my fellowmen I must then have been intolerable ... now I have not. The curse of insolence and forehandedness has been removed from me.
The systematic use of form words is one of the primary devices of English grammatical construction, surpassed in importance only past fixed word order. Grade words are therefore studied in grammer rather than in lexicology which concentrates its attention upon notional words.
Those linguists who divide all the words into three classes (notional words, grade words, deictic and substitute words or prop-words) consider the latter as pointing words (this, that, they, in that location, then, thus, he, hither, how, who, what, where, whither, nobody, never, non). Deictic words are orientational words, relative to the time and place of utterance. They ultimately stand up for objects of reality, if only at second mitt.
Very interesting treatment of form words is given by Charles Chips. The classes suggested by Ch. Fries are based on distribution, in other words, they are syntactic positional classes. Ch. Chips establishes them with the view of having the minimum number of different groups needed for a general clarification of utterances. His classification is based on the assumption that all the words that could occupy the same �ready of positions� in the patterns of English single gratuitous utterances without a change of the structural meaning, must belong to the aforementioned class. Very roughly and approximately his classification may be described as follows. The bulk of words in the utterances he investigated is constituted by four main classes. He gives them no names except numbers. Class I: water, fourth dimension, heating, matter, green (of a particular shade), (the) 6th, summertime, history, etc.; Class 2: felt, arranged, sees, forgot, judge, know, help, forward �to transport on�; Class HI: general, eighth, practiced; better, outstanding, wide, immature�, Course IV: in that location, here, at present, usually, definitely, first, twice.
The percent of the total vocabulary in these four classes is over 93%. The remaining 7% are constituted past 154 grade words. These, though few in number, occur very frequently.
Every reader is at one time tempted to equate these class numbers with the usual names: �nouns", �verbs", �adjectives� and �adverbs�. The two sets of names, however, do not strictly coincide in either what is included or what is excluded. Neither morphological course nor significant are taken into consideration. Unfortunately Ch. Chips does non requite satisfactory definitions and offers just the process of exchange past which words tin can be tested and identified in his minimum exam frames:
| Grade I | Grade II | Course Iii | Course Iv | |||
| Frame | A | (The) | concert | was | proficient | (ever) |
| Frame | � | (The) | clerk | remembered | (the) tax | (all of a sudden) |
| Frame | � | (The) | squad | went | there |
The functional words are subdivided into xv groups, and equally Ch. Fries could non find for them any general identifying characteristics, they are supposed to be recognised and learned as separate words, then that they grade fifteen subsets defined by list all the elements. As an instance of class words the group of determiners may exist taken. These are words which in the Ch. Fries classification organisation serve to mark the and so-called Class I forms. They can be substituted for the in the frame (The) concert is good. That is to say, they are words belonging to the group of limiting noun modifiers, such equally a, an, whatever, each, either, every, neither, no, 1, some, the, that, those, this, these, what, whatsoever, which, whichever, possessive adjectives (my) and possessive case forms (Joe�south). Determiners may occur before descriptive adjectives modifying the Grade I words.
We have dwelt so extensively upon this classification, because it is very much used, with dissimilar modifications, in modern lexicological inquiry practice, though the figures in the denotations of Ch. Chips were later substituted by letters. Due north denotes Class I words, i.e. all the nouns and some pronouns and numerals occupying the aforementioned positions, 5 � Form II, namely verbs with the exception of the auxiliaries, A � Class III, adjectives, some pronouns and numerals used attributively, D � Course IV, adverbs and some noun phrases. In lexicology the notation is chiefly used in diverse types of semasiological research with distributional and transformational analysis.
The division into such classes every bit parts of oral communication observes both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships of the words and also their significant. At that place is no necessity to dwell here upon the parts of speech communication, considering they are dealt with in grammar. We shall limit our discussion to subdivisions of parts of oral communication and call them lexico-grammatical groups. By a lexico-grammatical grouping we sympathise a class of words which have a mutual lexico-grammatical meaning, a mutual paradigm, the same substituting elements and perchance a characteristic ready of suffixes rendering the lexico-grammatical pregnant. These groups are subsets of the parts of speech, several lexico-grammatical groups constitute 1 part of spoken language. Thus, English language nouns are subdivided approximately into the following lexico-grammatical groups: personal names, animal names, collective names (for people), collective names (for animals), abstract nouns, material nouns, object nouns, proper names for people, toponymic proper nouns.
If, for instance, we consider a grouping of nouns having the following characteristics: ii number forms, the singular and the plural; 2 case forms; animate, substituted in the singular by he or she; common, i.e. denoting a notion and not one particular object (as proper names do); able to combine regularly with the indefinite article, some of them characterised by such suffixes as -er/-or, -ist, -��, -eer and the semi-affix -homo, nosotros obtain the so-chosen personal names: agent, baker, artist, volunteer, company, workman.
Observing the semantic structure of words belonging to this group we find a great deal of semantic likeness within it, non only in the denotative meanings every bit such just also in the way various meanings are combined. Personal nouns, for case, possess a comparatively simple semantic construction. A construction consisting of two variants predominates. In many cases the secondary, i.due east. derived meaning is due to generalisation or specialisation.ane Generalisation is nowadays in such words as advocate, which may mean any person who supports or defends a plan or a suggestion anywhere, not only in court; apostle, which alongside its religious pregnant may denote any leader of any reform or doctrine. E.g.: What would Sergius, the apostle of the higher love, say if he saw me now? (Shaw)
Specialisation is observed in cases like beginner, where the derived meaning corresponds to a notion of a narrower scope: �1 who has not had much experience� as compared to �ane who begins�.
The group is also characterised by a loftier percentage of emotionally coloured, chiefly derogatory words among the metaphorical derived variants, such as babe �a person who behaves like a baby� or witch �an ugly and unkind woman�.
Words belonging to another lexico-grammatical group, for case those denoting well-known animals, very often develop metaphorical expressive names for people possessing qualities rightly or wrongly attributed to the respective animals: donkey, bitch, cow, fox, swine. East. g.: Armitage had talked, he supposed. Damned young pup! What did he know about it! (Christie)
The subdivision of all the words belonging to some lexical category into groups of the kind described to a higher place is as well accomplished on this basis of oppositions. Should we want to observe the subgroups of the English noun, we may take every bit distinctive features the relations of the given give-and-take to the categories of number and instance, their combining possibilities with regard to definite, indefinite and zero commodity, their possible commutation by he, she, it or they, their unique or notional correlation.ii
Lexico-grammatical groups should non exist confused with parts of spoken communication. A few more examples volition help to grasp the difference. Audience and honesty, for example, vest to the same role of speech but to different lexico-grammatical groups, considering their lexico-grammatical
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one These terms are used to denote not the process but the issue of the semantic change seen when existing lexico-semantic variants of a word are compared.
ii Unique correlation is characteristic of proper names which have some unique object for referent (e. g. the Thames); words whose referents are generalised in a notion accept notional correlations (east. g. river).
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significant is different: audience is a grouping of people, and honesty is a quality; they accept different paradigms: audience has two forms, singular and plural, honesty is used simply in the singular; also honesty is hardly always used in the Possessive case unless personified. To show that the substituting elements are unlike two examples volition suffice: I am referring to what goes on inside the audience�s mind when they see the play (Arden). Honesty isn�t everything only I believe it�s the first matter (Priestley). Existence a collective noun, the word audience is substituted by they; honesty is substituted by it.
Other words belonging to the same lexico-grammatical group as audition are people, party, jury, just not flock or swarm, because the lexico-grammatical meaning of the terminal two words is different: they are substituted by it and denote groups of living beings just non persons, unless, of course, they are used metaphorically.
Date: 2015-09-25; view: 562; ��������� ��������� ����
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